View source for German Literature

'''A Timeline of the History of German Literature'''
(''Eine Zeittafel der Geschichte der deutschen Literatur'')

This was my final project for GER 454 - German Literature II in 1998, and represents a general survey of the history of German literature.  It was cobbled together at a time when the web was in its infancy, so there were not nearly as many resources available online as there are now, so it served as a reference for many students and researchers.  It's likely a bit dated now, but I'm making it available in this wiki, after many years of not being available due to the university removing students' personal websites, in the hopes that some may continue to find it useful.

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== Old High German Period (800-1050) ==
The first of the great German works during this period was "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/hildebrandslied.html Hildebrandslied]", a heroic pagan ballad about conflict between father and son. Written using alliterative verse, it was sung by minstrels before exalted audiences. Unfortunately it only survived in fragments.

Though called the Old High German Period, one of the greatest works during this period, "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/heliand/heliand.html Heliand]" (see below), was written in in old low German. In fact, most of the works of this period were not written in old high German, rather in Latin due to pressure from the church to reject the paganism of the time. Therefore a majority of the works produced during this time were by clergy or people otherwise associated with the church.

:The first attempts of Teutonic church poetry are biblical epics, and the leader of the Teutonic Christ-singers is the Anglo-Saxon monk Caedmon of Whitby (formerly a swineherd), about 680, who reproduced in alliterative verse, as by inspiration, the biblical history of creation and redemption, and brought it home to the imagination and heart of Old England. This poem, which was probably brought to Germany by Bonifacius and other English missionaries, inspired in the ninth century a similar production of an unknown Saxon (Westphalian) monk, namely, a poetic gospel harmony or life of Christ under the title "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/heliand/heliand.html Heliand]" (i.e., Heiland, Healer, Saviour). About the same time (c. 870), Otfrid of Weissenburg in the Alsace, a Benedictine monk, educated at Fulda and St. Gall, [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/otfrid.html versified the gospel history] in the Alemannian dialect, in fifteen hundred verses, divided into stanzas, each stanza consisting of four rhymed lines.

:(''Above paragraph from: [https://web.archive.org/web/20040803152215/http://www.bible.org/docs/history/schaff/vol7/schaf152.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20040803152215/http://www.bible.org/docs/history/schaff/vol7/schaf152.htm]'')

This period saw the the first German woman author of literature, a nun named Hrotsvit of the cloister of Gandersheim in Saxony. Another example of literature by clergy was the "Song of Walter the Strong-Handed" written by a 10th century monk named Ekkehardus I. A century later, another monk named Ekkehardus IV improved the Latin epic.

== Middle High German Period (1050-1300) ==

During the Middle High German period, some of the highest quality literature was produced to date, especially during the Golden Age (1180-1220). One of the best known developments during this period was the Minnesang.

The Minnesang was "the German tradition of courtly lyric and secular monophony that flourished in the 12th to the 14th centuries. It can be considered the German branch of the Provençal troubadour tradition, though it has independent features. It was cultivated particularly by the nobility, and diffused by traveling musicians. The word 'Minne' can be taken to represent love with both its spiritual and sensual overtones, and its essentially aristocratic poetry was based on the concept of Minnedienst - servitude to love - itself inextricably linked to the feudal system. A recurrent theme is that of the knight's love for an unattainable lady, of undying service without reward. During the peak period of Minnesang (circa 1165-1200), the hôhiu minne ('high Minne') represented the ideal spiritual love between man and woman, the nideriu minne (low Minne) the more physical demands of the man for possession of a woman." (from: The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music)

There were six general types of Minnesang: Minnelied- the man's expression of love; Frauenlied- the woman's song; Wechsel- in which the lovers 'exchange' their views; the Tagelied- like the Provençal Alba, the parting of the lovers at dawn; Tanzlied- dance song; Kreuzlied- crusading song.

One of the most famous Minnesangers was [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/walther.html Walther von der Vogelweide]. Though chivalry, knighthood, and gallantry were common themes in works like "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/iwein.html Iwein]" by Hartman von Aue, "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/parzival.html Parzival]" by Wolfram von Eschenbach, and "[http://projekt.gutenberg.de/gvstrass/tristan/trist001.htm Tristan und Isolde]" by Gottfried von Straßburg, Walther chose to write about love, emotion, and other human feelings.

The Middle High German Period also saw the rise of the epic. A few examples have already been listed. One of the most famous epics of the time was "Nibelungenlied" [[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/nibelung.html in English] | [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/nibelungenlied.txt auf Deutsch]] and has been compared to the German equivalent of "The Illiad."

== Early Modern Period (1300-1550) ==
The arrival of the Early Modern Period brought the period of the Minnesanger to an end; however, German Literature continued to develop and flourish. Literature of this period was very different than that of the previous. Where the Minnesangers celebrated knights, chivalry, and gallantry, the writers of the Early Modern Period satirized the idea of such things. This was was mainly due to the decline of knighthood and the rise of the middle class. Some of these writers include Sebastian Brant with his "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/brant-narr.html Narrenshiff]," Johann Baptist Fischart, and the Meistersanger Hans Sachs with his "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/sachs-lyr.html zwei Meisterlieder]."

Folklore was also popular during the time. This caused a rise in popular literature, which became increasingly available due to the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg. Due to these two factors, literacy amongst the German people increased dramatically during this time. Such tales as those of ''Till Eulenspiegel'' became very popular amongst the rising middle class. This period also saw the first traces of the ''Faust'' legend.

The popularity of poetry decreased during the period, but prose writing filled its void and indeed thrived doing so. Contributors were Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler, and Johannes von Tepl with his "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/tepl-ackerman.html Der Ackerman von Böhmen]."

Amongst all writers of this time, none were as controversial nor as well known as Martin Luther. Shortly after he nailed his "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/luther/luther-95.html 95 Theses]" to a Catholic church official's door, he was pronounced a heretic by the church. He spent much of his time in the Wartburg near Eisenach. There, he produced a large number of [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/luther/hymns/ hymns], but what he is most famous for is the [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/luther/bibel translation of the Bible] from the original Greek and Hebrew texts. One of the most amazing feats Luther accomplished while translating was to translate the entire New Testament from the original Greek texts in 11 weeks. By doing so, he put the word of God into the hands of the German people so that they no longer depended on the church to dictate to them from Latin texts. This one feat is credited for drastically increasing the literacy rates amongst the German people, and in fact, a majority of the Western world. With the help of Gutenberg's printing press, the Bible was translated and distributed to many other nations and became the most published and purchased book in the world.

== Baroque Style Predominates (1550-1700) ==
Literary development was stunted during this period by the Thirty Year's War (1618-1648). Throughout this period, the baroque style of exaggeration and elaboration predominate. An example of this is "[http://projekt.gutenberg.de/grimmels/simpl/simpl.htm The Adventures of Simplicissimus]" by Hans Jacob von Grimmelshausen, who was heavily influenced by visionary Jakob Bohme.

Writers of this period were also obsessed with the idea of trying to be superior to surrounding countries, and thus ''Sprachgesellschaften'' (language academies) were founded in the effort to purify and promote the German language.

The tragedy, as a response to the death and destruction of the Thirty Year's War, was very popular amongst writers such as [http://projekt.gutenberg.de/gryphius/armenius/armenius.htm Andreas Gryphius] and Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein.

Poetry began to flourish again under authors like [http://projekt.gutenberg.de/opitz/poeterey/poeterey.htm Martin Opitz]. The sonnet and alexandrine verse were the forms of choice. Influenced by the baroque style, these authors produced vivid and powerful poems including: Paul Fleming's "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/fleming-verstoss.html Zur Zeit seiner Verstossung]", Andreas Gryphius' "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/gryphius-traenen.html Tränen des Vaterlandes]", Christian Hofmann von Hofmanns-Waldau's "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/hofmanns-diewelt.html Die Welt]", and Simon Dach's "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/dach-annchen.html Anke von Tharaw]". Protestant poetry also prospered with the [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/gerhardt hymns] of Paul Gerhardt.

== Age of Rationalism (1700-1775) ==
The Age of Rationalism is called the reaction to the excessiveness of the Baroque Age. Actually it was more of a readjustment back to the roots of human nature. Most of the works of this age deal with humanity on one level or another.

This age produced many great authors the first being Johann Gottsched who brought many improvements into German literature, especially in drama. The next great was Gotthold Lessing who formed the basis of modern German dramas and in doing so, was considered be a true liberator of German literature. His "[http://projekt.gutenberg.de/lessing/nathan/nathan.htm Nathan the Wise]" "remains a monument to principles of religious tolerance and human dignity." Christopher Wieland was another important author of the time. A novelist inspired be French refinement and sensuousness, Wieland translated many of Shakespeare's plays into German. The emotionalism of the German people was expressed by Friedrich Klopstock in "The Messiah."

== Age of Idealism (1775-1850) ==
The Age of Idealism produced more talented authors than any other period of German literature, in fact some of the greatest German authors wrote during this age. The age is split up into three movements:  ''Sturm und Drang'' (Storm and Stress), classicism, and romanticism all of which stressed idealism rather than realism.

''Sturm und Drang'' was the first movement of the Age of Idealism. It took its name from Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger's play "Sturm und Drang" (1776). He was one of many young authors which included Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (see also classical movement), Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schiller (see also classical movement), who were inspired by the German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder to abandon rationalism and conformity and to instead use elements of national or folk lore.

The ''Sturm und Drang'' period was a stepping stone for Schiller and Goethe into the next movement. With the experience of the the previous movement, they collaborated together to integrate the ancient classical tradition into German romanticism.

Goethe produced many works during the classical movement including his best known and widely performed "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/goethe/index.html Faust]", "Iphigenia in Taurus" and "Torquato Tasso," which explored humanism, and "Wilhelm Meister" which shaped future German novels.

Schiller choose to express the ethical and intellectual beliefs of the time. Works like "Maria Stuart," "Wallenstein," "Wilhelm Tell," and "[http://projekt.gutenberg.de/schiller/jungfrau/jfo0.htm Die Jungfrau von Orleans]" helped illustrated these beliefs.

The romantic movement combined some aspects of the ''Sturm und Drang'' movement along with some of those of the classical movement, and emphasized individualism and the inner workings of humans. Goethe and Schiller continued to work into this movement, however many others joined them: Friedrich Hölderlin whose "poems achieved a synthesis of ancient Greek forms and modern sensibility," Heinrich von Kleist "who expressed his chaotic view of the world in passionate dramas and powerful short stories," and humorist Johann Friedrich Richter.

Many writers joined together and formed literary circles in the major cities. The first circle was in Jena: August Wilhelm von Schlegel (who translated works of Shakespeare into German, most noteably, "Julius Cäsar") and Friedrich von Schlegel, the mystic Novalis, and poet [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/eckbert.html Ludwig Tieck]. Circles were formed in Berlin and Heidelberg which included such authors as: Achim and Bettina von Arnim, Clemens Brentano, Joseph and Freiherr von Eichendorff, and [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/eta-hoffmann/zaches.htm Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann].

Other notable romantics included: [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/lenau-Das_Mondlicht.txt Nikolaus Lenau], Ludwig Uhland, Friedrich Ernst Daniel Schleiermacher, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling.

Towards the end of the romantic movement, two writers stood out: [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/heine-lorelei.html Heinrich Heine] and [https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/morike-abschied.html Eduard Mörike]. Politically motivated, they formed a movement known as Young Germany and challenged the surviving feudalism of the time.

== Age of Realism (1850-World War II) ==
The end of the Age of Idealism brought the grandiose period of German literature to an end as authors, motivated by realism, became more politically aware. Literature of this age was influenced by many factors.

The politically charged romanticists like Heinrich Heine continued to write during the Age of Realism. Other writers followed in his footsteps by challenging the status quo and resisting authoritative power. Poets like Annette Elizabeth von Droste-Hulshoff were still being lead by Eduard Mörike. Romantic dramatists still had a large following in Franz Grillparzer and Christian Friedrich. The theater was revolutionized by the romantic composer Richard Wagner. The Revolution of 1848 caused some of the more politically charged and controversial authors to go into exile. Perhaps the most famous were Karl Marx and Carl Schurz.

As illustrated above, the early literature of the Age of Realism was still influenced by the romanticism of the previous age. This literature was called poetic realism because writers chose to view realism through "a veil of illusion."  Gottfried Keller, Conrad Meyer, Jeremias Gotthelf, Gottfried Keller, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Wilhelm Raabe, Adalbert Stifter and Theodor Storm chose to use this style in their fiction.

Two romantics stood out amongst the others. Georg Büchner was considered to be a true visionary with his stories that rejected the bourgeois values of religion, morality, and idealism, and in doing so, anticipated modern styles. His "[http://projekt.gutenberg.de/buechner/woyzeck/woyz2001.htm Woyzeck]" illustrates his views. Perhaps the most famous author of the time was Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche. He rejected the idealistic philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Arthur Schopenhauer, and his writings dominated philosophic debate for many years to come.

Shortly before World War I, many other literary styles were popular in literature, the first being photographic realism, or naturalism. Literature written in this style was done so with out the "veil of illusion" that is found in poetic realism. This type of literature was generally unpleasant and brutally honest. Gerhart Hauptmann was a master of naturalism as illustrated in his plays "[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52218/52218-h/52218-h.htm Vor Sonnenaufgang]" ("Before Dawn") and "The Weavers," and also in "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/works/thiel.html Bahnwarter Thiel]." Arno Holz and Arthur Schnizler, a contemporary of Sigmund Freud, were also used naturalism in their writings.

Other styles included the revivals of classicism, romanticism, and realism, as well as a new literary style called expressionism. As illustrated by these revivals, much of this age was still under the influence of Goethe and Schiller.

During events directly before and after World War I, neoromanticism (also called impressionism or symbolism) was the style of choice amongst poets such as Stefan George, Hugo von Hofmannsthal who wrote lyric poems and librettos for the operas of Richard Strauss, and especially Rainer Maria Rilke. Neoromanticism was also popular amongst novelists such as Thomas Mann and Erich Maria Remarque in "[https://mosterd.org/coursework/deutsch/literatur/projekt/realism.html All Quiet on the Western Front]."

The new development of the Age of Realism, expressionism, was a movement interested in the essence of things rather than their appearance. They thoroughly searched the human mind and explored every aspect of it.

Before World War I, expressionistic poets Gottfried Benn, Georg Trakl, and Georg Heym created apocalyptic visions. Towards the end of the war, the expressionist movement saw the rise of the drama beginning with the authors Georg Büchner, Frank Wedekind, Georg Kaiser, Fritz von Unruh, and Ernst Toller. They were followed by Herman Hesse and one of the most famous expressionists, fictionist Franz Kafka, whose novels and short stories were known for their nightmarish sense of reality to unreality.

Towards the end of the end of the expressionist movement, a new movement called Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity) was formed with expressionist writers such as Bertolt Brecht and Franz Werfel. This movement, like the expressionist, survived a world war, however, this movement, along with all literature before and during World War II, were brutally suppressed by the Nazis. As in 1848, in 1933 many writers, authors, composers, and artists were forced into exile, including Bertolt Brecht, who wrote some of his finest plays while in exile. Some could not return until after the war, and some chose not to return at all and therefore, there was a cultural vacuum in 1945 that lasted for many years.

== The Postwar Generation:  A divided Germany (Post World War II - ''Die Wende'') ==
In the aftermath of World War II, German literature followed three basic themes: dealing with the aftermath of war, coping with the guilt of the atrocities performed in the concentration camps, and adjusting to the division of Germany.

Germany was in utter ruins after World War II. Millions of of people had died, most of the major cities were bombed into rubble, and Germany was divided. Wolfgang Koeppen explored the war and its results from many points of view with such works as "Pigeons in the Grass," "The Greenhouse," and "Death in Rome." Helmut Thielicke in his "Nihilism" attempted to explain the mindless violence and destruction that took place during the Nazi rule.

The most common theme amongst writers of this time was guilt. As the world discovered the horror of the concentration camps, the guilt mounted upon the German people. Many new authors tried to deal with this guilt, others explored it. One of the most profound works to come out of Germany after the war was "Letters and Papers from Prison," by Dietrich Bohhoeffer a clergyman who was executed in a concentration camp. This work had a profound influence not just on the German people, but the entire world. G&uuml;nter Grass's most famous work, "The Tin Drum" dealt with guilt through it's main character who seeks to be convicted of a crime that he didn't do, in order to satisfy the guilt he feels. This novel was followed by other works such as "Dog Years," "Local Anesthetic," and "From the Diary of a Snail."

Some of the writers of the previous age also chose to write about the guilt. With their past experience of the expressionism movement, they were more successful at confronting the problem. These writers include: Franz Werfel, Elisabeth Langgässer, Hermann Kasack, Hermann Broch with his "The Guiltless," and Thomas Mann with his "The Holy Sinner."

Heinrich Böll became popular amongst Germans because he chose not to write about guilt. He produced many works with simple plots such as "The Train Was on Time", "The Clown", and "Precautionary Siege." He was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1972 and, as part of Gruppe 47, he, along with Günter Grass (see above), and Uwe Johnson organized a literary resurgence.

During the 1960s into the 1980s, the division of Germany was a popular topic. One of the most notable authors on this subject was the afore mentioned Uwe Johnson. Her "The Third Book About Achim," and "Two Views," deal with problems of a divided Germany. Another author, Christoph Hein wrote "Der Tangospieler," which deals with life in Communist East Germany.

== Reunification/Modern Germany (November 9, 1989-Present) ==
(coming soon)

== Citations / References ==
'''NOTE:  these are the original sources as used in 1998; if the reference is no longer available, I have linked to the [[https://archive.org Archive.org]] archived version.'''
=== Primary ===
* Compton's Encyclopedia
* Encarta
* German Literature Links
* Grolier 1997 Multimedia Encyclopedia (on CD-ROM)
* Literatur Links
* Online German Studies
* Projekt Gutenberg
* Western European Specialists Section

=== Other ===
* bibliotheca Augustana
* Luther's Hymns
* German Literature
* Medieval Literature
* 19th Century German Lit
* Olivers Links zur Literatur
* Projeckt Alfred
* The German Collection at the University of Virginia
* DaDaism Online
* German war poetry during WWI